EDUCATION IN BIBLICAL TIMES. The word for education (חִינּוּך) in modern Heb. is derived from the root חָנַכְ, H2852, to train which is used in late Biblical Heb. “Train up a child in the way he should go...” (Prov 22:6). Other verbs are used to denote “training,” “instructing” and “learning.” Teaching and learning often took the form of repetition שִׂיחַ֒, H8488. לָמַד, H4340, is used of the training of animals, the bullock in particular (Jer 2:24) but also of Israel (Judg 3:2; Hos 10:11). יָסַר֒, H3579, is used of giving instruction (2 Chron 35:3; Prov 1:2; Isa 28:26). Derived from תּﯴרָה, H9368, which is usually tr. “law” (but in fact has the wider meaning of “instruction”), is the verb יָרָה֙, H3723, meaning “to instruct” (1 Sam 12:23). The object of knowledge is described as “insight” (בִּינָה, H1069) (Prov 2:3; 9:10), as well as תּﯴרָה, H9368. Derived from the roots ירה and למד, already mentioned above are two words for “teachers,” מﯴרִים and מּלַמְּדִים (5:13). Teachers are also described as “the wise” ֭חֲכָמִים (Prov 13:14; 15:7) which is in Gr. σοφοι. They had “pupils” (=sons) בָנִ֑ים (1 Chron 25:8; Prov 2:1; et al.). Pupils were also described as “disciples” לִמּוּדִֽים (Isa 8:16; 50:4).

By NT times teachers were known as רַב, or רַבִּי or רַבָּא “Rabbi” or מַר “Master,” “rabbi” is tr. as διδάσκαλος, G1437, (John 1:38; 20:16) and “Master” as Κύρίος. Jesus is described as “teacher” (διδάσκαλος, G1437) about fifty times in the gospels which on many occasions indicated that Jesus taught (διδάσκειν). He taught the multitudes (Mark 2:13); He taught in the synagogue (1:21). He also taught His disciples (μαθηταὶ̀) (Matt 5:1, 2, etc.). Mention of Jesus’ disciples occurs over 200 times in the gospels. What Jesus taught is described as “doctrine” (διδαχή, G1439) (John 7:16). Having been taught by Jesus, His disciples were told to teach others also, making them disciples (Matt 28:19, 20).

Outline

I. Introduction

The purpose of this study limits investigation to the development of education in Israel and the Early Church. But it will be necessary to say a few words about the background out of which Israel’s educational ideals developed. Educational systems had evolved as early as the 3rd millennium b.c. There are a number of school texts dating from about 2,500 b.c. From these documents we learn of numerous schools for scribes in ancient Sumer. In these schools literary works were copied and studied. The study was connected with the training for the needs of the Temple, palace courts and the administration of the empire. Education of this kind was voluntary and costly, and pupils were drawn from the upper class. Subjects studied were botany, zoology, geology, geography, mathematics, languages and other cultural studies. The schools were staffed by a professor and his assistants who gave regular classroom tuition. A teacher was referred to as “father” and he referred to his pupils as “sons.”

The profession of the scribes was highly regarded also in ancient Egypt. Other professions are compared unfavorably with it. Such was the prestige of this profession that a severe discipline and single-minded study could be required of those who intended to enter it. The scribal school was attached to the Temple and was called the “House of Life.” Study was divided into two sections, elementary education and higher education. The elementary education consisted of the learning of writing (NB calligraphy), the study of ancient lit. and the copying of these texts. At the end of the elementary education, students transferred either to the government administration or to the priesthood. If they transferred to the government administration they received a higher education in the duties of office, composition, geography, and natural science. If to the priesthood their study was in theology and medicine.

Three points of contact or similarity may be mentioned here.

First, observe the connection of education with the Tabernacle (Temple). At an early age, Samuel was dedicated to God’s service and was brought to the Tabernacle where he ministered to the Lord and was educated by Eli the priest. Samuel was not a Levite nor did he belong to the priestly class. The incident raises the question as to whether there was a school attached to the sanctuary, even in those early days. Many OT scholars now claim that around the cultic shrines in Israel there were schools of priests, who were responsible for the transmission of the law, both oral and written. If such was the case, it is a parallel situation to what took place in Egypt and the ancient Near E.

Second, notice the class of men known as scribes in Israel. They are to be compared with the scribes of Egypt and the ancient Near E, where such officials played an important part in the administration of the nation. They were friends, philosophers and guides to the kings and leaders of the nation of their time. In Israel there is little evidence for the existence of a scribal class until the exilic and postexilic period of history. Prior to this, the stage had been dominated by such figures as Moses, the judges, the kings, the prophets and the priests. It may be that the scribal functions were carried out by some of these officials. Indeed, it has been suggested that Moses learned a great deal about the scribal activities in the course of his education in Egypt. It is not until the time of the Exile that the scribes come to the fore in Israel. Ezra is described as a scribe “skilled in the law of Moses which the Lord God of Israel had given” (Ezra 7:6). This description seems to assume that the institution of scribes had been in existence for some time. This is true in a sense because although there does not seem to have been a special class of scribes, there were those who carried out secretarial functions such as Seraiah mentioned (2 Sam 8:17; cf. 2 Chron 24:11; 26:11). (For mention of certain other scribes see also 1 Chron 24:6; 27:32; 2 Chron 34:13 and Jer 36:26.) These scribes apparently carried out secretarial functions in the king’s court and in the administration of the nation. Some of the scribes also were occupied in the transmission of the law (Jer 8:8). Initially it is possible that the priests (who were Levites) combined scribal functions with their teaching duties. The later priesthood, however, developed in a different direction. The upper class became involved in politics, and other priests and Levites were invol ved in the intricacies of Temple worship. Biblical scholarship and exposition passed over into the hands of a special class of scribes. Ezra the scribe who was a priest marks the development of this new class (Ezra 7:6, 11; Neh 8:4, 9, 13). From the time of Ezra onward, the scribes were a special class of Biblical scholars, exegetes, official teachers and spiritual leaders.

Third, notice contact with the background of the ancient world in the reference to teachers as “father” and the pupil as “my son” (Prov 2:1; etc.). It is probable that the scribes were the “wise” of Proverbs who collated the Wisdom Lit. of the OT and became the educators of Israel.

II. Jewish education in Old Testament times

The word “Jewish” is used in an ideological or theological sense to indicate those who are Jews by religion. Consequently, the discussion at this point excludes the contribution of the early Heb. Christians, which is found in the NT.

A. Origin and aims. Educational ideas and practice begin with the birth of the nation. OT scholarship has long recognized a double origin for Israel: the first, beginning with the call of Abraham and the second, with Moses and the Exodus. The Israelites were called to understand themselves as the people of God and to come to know how they may serve the Lord who had called them. Thus the primary aim of all the educational activity was religious (Gen 18:19). The aim was to train the young to know and serve the Lord (Deut 6:7; Prov 1:7) so that throughout their life they would not depart from this way (Prov 22:6). Thus religious education centered its attention on the Torah and aimed at educating the Jews for living. It was not merely an education to make a living but was concerned with persons and character forming. Knowing was not divorced from being and doing, and good character was seen to result from a right relationship with God through the study of the Torah. The primacy of the Torah embraced the whole of life from the cradle to the grave. One was never too old or too young to learn. It embraced every aspect of life also. From the time of Ezra onward, the life of the Jews was Torahcentric. They became known as “the people of the Book.” It was this that separated them from all other people.

It may be said that the Jewish aims in education were exclusively religious, neglecting cultural development. In later Judaism, the preoccupation with the Torah developed into a legalistic system of hair splitting which led to absurdities, and in many instances to the hypocritical self-righteousness of the Jews as they often appear on the pages of the NT. In spite of this narrowness, Jewish educational aims succeeded where the systems of Sparta, Athens and Rome failed. These systems failed because of faulty aims. The system of Sparta may be said to have aimed at the obliteration of the individual in the service of the state. The aim in Athens may be said to be the training of the individual in the service of culture. In Rome, the training of the individual was in the service of the state. The aim in Israel was the training of the individual in the service of God. The aim in Rome, Sparta and Athens failed at a moral level. Their systems did not contain the faith capable of challenging indifference and superficiality. Therefore, they lost their sense of direction and failed. It has been said “the Graeco-Roman world was decaying and dying from the dearth of true educational ideals” (W. M. Ramsey, The Education of Christ, p. 66). Jewish education never lost its sense of direction. Its intention was not education in academic and technical knowledge, but education in holiness (Lev 19:2). Though the people of Israel often forgot the ideals, there were always priests, prophets, scribes, sages, rabbis and teachers to remind them. God and not man was the center; righteousness, not self-interest was the aim (Exod 19:6).

B. Development. The Jewish educational system was the result of a long and gradual development from a simple origin to a complex system as it appears in NT times. Throughout the OT period there was nothing like a state educational system. Generally speaking, the boys were taught the necessary skills of agriculture by their fathers, and the girls were taught domestic skills by their mothers. But, as education in Israel meant education in living and serving God, attention must be drawn to the necessity of reading and understanding the law; hence the question of literacy in OT times. Throughout the ancient Near E, as early as the beginning of the 3rd millennium, writing was a sign of civilization. In the 2nd millennium alphabets were developed with a resulting increase of literacy. As yet, few documents from the preexilic period have been found in Pal., but many thousands have been discovered in neighboring territories. It is reasonable to assume that its proximity to other cultural centers enabled Israel to share the art of writing throughout all the periods covered by the OT. Throughout the whole of the OT period there were individuals in Israel who could read and write. Moses read the decalogue (Exod 24:12; cf. 17:14; 34:27; Num 24:4; Deut 30:10; Josh 8:31). Apparently he was helped by literate officials (Num 11:16). During the wandering in the wilderness, the priests wrote down curses (5:23). Samuel wrote down the rights and duties of kingship (1 Sam 10:25). David wrote letters to Joab (2 Sam 11:14). Solomon wrote to Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Chron 2:1-10). Scribes recorded lists of persons (1 Chron 24:6). The prophet Isaiah wrote (Isa 8:1); Jeremiah dictated his teaching to his secretary Baruch (Jer 36:27). It is impossible to say what proportion of the population was taught to read and write. E. W. Heaton suggests that only a small proportion of the population would have been literate. Isaiah distinguishes the literate and illiterate (Isa 29:12), and he mentions a child’s writing; “The remnant of the trees of his forest will be so few that a child can write them down” (10:19). Isaiah was in close touch with the aristocratic circle of the court and his casual reference cannot be used as the basis for a sweeping generalization. Far more significant of the general state of affairs is the fact that when an Israelite borrowed money he did not write an I.O.U., but gave a garment in pledge (Deut 24:13). The garment had no security value and prob. was used as a symbol of indebtedness by the illiterate.

It is quite certain that some boys were taught to read and write and it is possible that there is still some evidence of their writing exercises. The rough scribbling known as the Gezer Calendar has been plausibly interpreted as a student’s effort, and in 1938 someone noticed the first five letters of the Heb. alphabet scratched in their conventional order on the vertical face of a step of the royal palace at Lachish. This inscr. has been dated in the early part of the 8th cent. b.c. It has been suggested that it was written by a boy who was just learning his alphabet. G. R. Driver has suggested that Isaiah 28:9, 10 “precept upon precept, line upon line” is a reference to a child’s spelling lesson. It also has been suggested that the Israelite teacher had his boys repeat, in turn, the letters of the alphabet, a suggestion which is perhaps confirmed by the word “alphabet” itself.

It seems likely that increasing numbers of Israelites became literate as time passed. Those who could not write, but needed to transact official business simply made their mark. This was done by placing one of the letters of the alphabet at the foot of the script (Job 31:35). Another method of signing a document was to seal it. Such evidence, as we have, would suggest that prior to the monarchy and during the monarchy, education of a formal nature was only for the few. Such teaching was done in Heb., in the homes by the parents. In the exilic and postexilic periods, education expanded its scope to many more individuals and was carried out in Aram. as well as Heb. Such teaching continued to be done in the home, but also in schools and by specialized individuals such as the scribes. With the coming of the Greeks in the 4th cent. b.c., the Gr. language also was used in Israelite education. Thus, we notice a development in Israelite education from teaching in the home to a developed school system. It should be noted that from the first, nurses or guardians or teachers in loco parentis were employed among the higher classes (see Ruth 4:16; 2 Sam 4:4; 2 Kings 10:5; Isa 49:23).

W. F. Albright is of the opinion that there is evidence of literacy, even among the peasants by the 10th cent. b.c., i.e. during the early monarchy; thus it has been suggested that though literacy was not universal (Isa 29:11) it was widespread (see Deut 6:9; 17:18, 19; 27:2-8; Josh 18:4, 8, 9; Judg 8:14; Isa 10:19). Reference to the Siloam inscr., Lachish letters, Elephantine papyri show widespread writing of daily affairs. Further, the development of the cursive script indicates a broadening use by the masses. (1 Macc 1:56 indicates that copies of the Torah were in houses, and the Talmudic lit. and notes of students show a high degree of literacy in the days of the second commonwealth.)

With the development of literacy a change in the aims of education can be detected. The fundamental aim in Israelite education was religious, but one can distinguish two separate parts of this aim—(a) the transmission of a historical heritage. Israelites were requested to teach their history (Exod 12:26, 27; 13:7, 8, 14; Josh 4:21ff.). They were required to remember to teach the ordinances (Deut 4:9, 10; 6:20, 21; 7:17-19; 32:7). The aim was to transmit an ethical heritage (Gen 18:19—cf. Exod 20:1-17). Of course, ethical injunctions were aimed to make a good and just society (Lev 19:2ff.). Social justice is linked with the holiness of God (Amos 2:6, 7). The fear of the Lord is to lead to a good life (Prov 9:10). In fact wisdom is equated with life itself (8:35). In the Wisdom Lit. the emphasis shifts to instruction in ethical conduct of life. Here the instruction in daily existence finds many parallels in the lit. of the ancient Near E. There is instruction, for example, concerning the sex life (5:3-21). Again and again the stress is laid on the need for instruction for the good life. This is the purpose of education, to instruct in righteousness (1:2-4). The need for the continuity of this instruction continues life long (1:5).

C. Characteristics. The most important characteristic of Jewish education was the whole religious ethos and intention of the system. Consequently, the Jewish education lacked scientific character, in fact it was pre-scientific. We find nothing of physics, chemistry, biology, psychology and the other natural sciences. But the Hebrews knew many practical trades and skills, building, mining, metallurgy, wood and stone work (Exod 35:30ff.). The point of significance is this—there were no schools to teach these trades. The trades were learned in apprenticeships. As far as we know, there were no schools of music, architecture, sculpture, painting, arts or the theater, etc. The place that music plays in the worship in Israel suggests that at least this art must have been developed by systematic instruction, but there is no evidence for this. Most of the cultural arts here mentioned were associated with the heathen religions and were developed in Gr. and Rom. culture. Just as the Jewish educational system ignored the arts, so it ignored also the development of philosophy. Philosophic origins presuppose a culture alien to that of Israel. Philosophy originated in a humanistic society which believed in the power of man’s intellect. Such a presupposition is alien to the Jewish dependence on divine revelation. The whole of Israel’s religion, worship and educational practice was based on the firm belief that God had revealed Himself to Moses and to the prophets. It was this historical revelation that was to be communicated in the educational process.

D. Synagogue

1. Origin and development. There is no account of the origin of the synagogue in the OT, the Apoc. or the NT. In spite of this lack of information, most scholars feel sure that the synagogue developed as an institution during the Exile in Babylon. In the OT, only in Psalm 74:8 is the Heb. word for “synagogue” (מﯴעֵד, H4595) used, though of course the LXX uses the Gr. word συναγωγή, G5252, on many occasions to refer to the assembly of Israel. These references should not be understood of the synagogue as an institution in Israel. Συναγωγή is used fifty-six times in the NT.

Although the origin of the synagogue is uncertain, its significance could not be clearer. Scholars have suggested that the importance of the synagogue for Judaism cannot be overestimated. It was this institution that gave Judaism its character. Prior to the Exile worship in Israel had been centered on the Temple and on the sacrificial cultus. With the destruction of the Temple this focal point was removed. For the exiles even worship at Jerusalem was an impossibility. It seems that the synagogue arose as a place for instruction in the Scriptures and prayer. There are scholars who consider that the Exile does not mark the origin of the synagogue but a modification in its functions, worship becoming from then on the principal, though far from the only, purpose, with administrative functions falling into the background. Other scholars have suggested that Ezekiel 14:1, “Then came certain of the elders of Israel to me, and sat before me” (cf. 20:1) provides a probable basis for the origin of the synagogue. Levertoff (“Synagogue” in ISBE) simply asserts “It must have come into being during the Babylonian exile.” After a.d. 70, Ezekiel 11:16, “Yet will I be to them as a little sanctuary” (KJV) was interpreted to mean that in the worldwide diaspora, Israel would have a synagogue in miniature to replace the lost Temple. One may conclude that from a shadowy origin the synagogue developed into the characteristic institution in Judaism by NT times.

2. Function. In every place in the ancient world where there was a community of Jews, there was a synagogue. In the synagogue there was no altar. The reading of the Torah and prayer took the place of sacrifice. The synagogue became the center of a new social and religious life. The Temple had centered God’s presence in one place. Now there were synagogues throughout the Diaspora wherever ten adult male Jews were found, bringing God’s presence to the people wherever they were.

Worship, education and the government of the community, were the purposes which the synagogue fulfilled. The purposes of worship and education often were carried forward in one activity, because in the synagogue worship took on the character of instruction. Peritz has shown that the primary function of the synagogue assemblies was the popular instruction in the law (Encyclopaedia Biblica, 4 Vols. 1899-1903).

According to the Mishnah (Megillah 4:3), the service of the synagogue consisted of five parts: (a) the Shema was read, i.e. Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; Numbers 15:37-41; (b) the synagogue prayers were recited, e.g. the eighteen benedictions, though this form of prayers may be later than the NT period. At the heart of these prayers is the theme of the restoration of Israel to the land of the fathers and return of the glory of God to the Temple, rebuilt in Jerusalem; (c) the reading of the law; (d) the reading from the prophets; (e) the benediction. Because many people could not understand Heb., a paraphrase of the lessons was given in Aram. and an exposition and exhortation drawn from it. This part of the service came after the reading in Heb. and preceded the benediction. It has been suggested that this is a later practice. Nehemiah (8:8) wrote “and they read from the book, from the law of God, clearly; and they gave the sense, so that the people understood the reading.” This seems to refer to this practice. The synagogue provided a mass system of adult education in which the Torah was studied weekly. With the destruction of the Temple in the 6th cent. b.c., the synagogue came into prominence and it became the most enduring and widespread institution in Israel after the Exile. Under its influence, all Jews became students of the law and without the synagogue the Jews would have perished.

E. Schools and academies. The text of the OT suggests that the prophets were responsible for the first schools in Israel. The prophets’ educational role is quite plain from the beginning. They look back to Moses as their founding figure, as the prophet par excellence (Deut 34:10). He embodied the prophetic ideal (Deut 18:15ff.), “The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet like me (i.e., Moses) from among you, from your brethren—him you shall heed.” The prophets were considered teachers of Israel as a whole. By the time of the beginning of the Israelite kingdom, there was a prophetic profession. Bands or companies of prophets (see 1 Sam 10:5, 10; 19:20) is a description of the “band of prophets.” The “sons of the prophets” were the disciples who were taught by the prophets. Later on there is clear evidence of the prophets teaching their disciples (see 1 Kings 19:16; 2 Kings 2:3ff; 4:38; Isa 8:16). The prophets transmitted knowledge to their disciples (2 Kings 4:38-41). An aspect of the knowledge that was transmitted concerned medical science (cf. the practice in Egypt where theology and medicine were combined). As may be expected from a tradition that had its roots in a Mosaic prototype, the teaching of the prophets centered on the Torah, the law, taking into account the question of a relevant interpretation for the times in which they lived.

The development of schools in the more formal sense is related to the growth of the synagogue. If there is some uncertainty as to the time of the origin of the synagogue, the same is true of the origin of the school system in Israel. It does not seem likely that the school system was in operation in the time of the Exile. More likely is the suggestion that the development took place under Hel. influence, therefore in the 4th cent. b.c. or later. During the second commonwealth, literacy was widespread, books of the law being found in many houses (see 1 Macc 1:56f.). Rabbinic lit. attributes a compulsory school system to the Pharisees during the 1st cent. b.c. The Pharisees were the popular party c. 76-67 b.c. Simon ben Shetach (75 b.c.) taught people systematically. He decreed that children should attend elementary school (בֵּת הַסֵּפֶר) the “house of the book.” The Book, of course, was the Torah, with the explanation and oral law.

The first elementary school was prob. in Jerusalem with the institution spreading to the urban centers at a later time. Joseph ben Gamala (c. a.d. 65) tried to make elementary education universal and compulsory by endeavoring to make provision for teachers in all provinces and allowing children to enter the school at the age of six or seven. Instruction was given in reading, and the Torah was studied both in its written and oral form. The curriculum in the elementary school was basically the Bible—the OT and the Apoc. The Pseudep. was not part of the formal education in school, though it had a widespread circulation. Scientific ideas were embedded incidentally in the OT—this is true also of political ideas. The OT was studied in Heb., except for a few passages in Aram., notably in Ezra and Daniel. Some apocryphal books were in Gr., but Heb. continued as the language for scholarly study. Popular readings were written down in Aram., the Targums and in Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece. Greek trs. became necessary and consequently the LXX was published to meet this need. In the elementary schools one would expect to have found study in Heb., Aram. and Gr., though the emphasis on the different languages would have differed from place to place. In the Jewish Diaspora there was more emphasis on the study of the Gr. language and hence more contact with Gr. culture. The difference between Palestinian Judaism and the Judaism of the Diaspora must not be overemphasized. Elementary education concluded about the age of fifteen, and promising students could then go on to secondary school. By NT times there was a strong attempt to make elementary education universal for all Jews wherever they were.

Academies of the rabbis were the secondary schools for promising students. The academy was called the “House of Study” (בֵּת הַמִּדְרָשׁ). It seems probable that the elementary schools studied the OT and the oral law, the Mishnah. In the secondary schools the rabbis conducted theological discussions, and these discussions now have been written down and constitute the Talmud. Each house of study was conducted by a great Pharisaic teacher (cf. Hillel and Shamai). These academies had more sanctity even than the synagogue (Megillah 26b-27a). Under the leadership of the rabbi, students discussed the interpretation of the Torah and its application. These discussions became the basis of normative Judaism. Paul was educated in the academy of the Pharisee Gamaliel, who was the grandson of Hillel and was prob. the leading teacher of the time. The first mention of “the House of Study” is in Ecclesiasticus 51:23. A mention of the men of the great assembly or the Great Synagogue in the Mishnah is prob. also a reference to the academies.

Under the wing of the synagogue, elementary and secondary schools grew up. The elementary school normally operated in or near the synagogue building, and the rule of the synagogue was normally the teacher’s. The secondary school or the academy normally operated apart from the synagogue in the Temple precincts or in the teacher’s own house. Through the influence of these three institutions, the synagogue, the elementary school and the academy, all Jews became students of the law and these institutions more than anything else made the Jews the people of the Book.

F. Personnel

1. God. In the ancient world there was no such thing as a “secular culture.” God or gods were presupposed in Gr. and Rom. civilization just as much as in the Heb. civilization. Nevertheless, there were important differences between the Hebraic approach to knowledge and the Graeco-Roman approach. The Hebrews believed that all truth came from God the Creator, Judge and Redeemer who revealed to man the knowledge necessary for his own welfare. Man’s welfare was thought to be dependent on a satisfactory relationship to God. For the Greeks and Romans, man’s mind had the potential power for the discovery of truth. Therefore, they stressed the development of reason, and this led to the study of science and philosophy. The Heb. approach to education arose from their understanding of revelation. If man was to have knowledge, he was to have it only because God had revealed Himself to man. Consequently, God was the primary educating figure in Israel. He is called “the Teacher” (Isa 30:20ff.), and as such the prophet considers that people should consult Him for knowledge rather than idols or the dead (see Isa 8:19). As the Teacher, He calls on His people to listen to Him, “Give ear, O my people, to my teaching; incline your ears to the words of my mouth!” (Ps 78:1ff.).

As the Teacher it is considered impertinent to ask who has taught God; “Will any teach God knowledge, seeing that he judges those that are on high?” (Job 21:22ff.). “Who has directed the Spirit of the Lord or as his counselor has instructed him? Whom did he consult for his enlightenment, and who taught him the path of justice, and taught him knowledge and showed him the way of understanding?” (Isa 40:13ff.). The presupposed answer to these questions is “no one,” and this is meant to be self-evident. The content of this instruction given by the Lord is the Torah. Teaching the Torah also includes telling “to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the Lord, and his might, and the wonders which he has wrought” (Ps 78:4). The psalmist asks, “Make me understand the way of thy precepts, and I will meditate on thy wondrous works” (Ps 119:27). The teaching of the Torah and God’s activity in history are inseparably linked together.

The method God used in teaching His people was a form of discipline (Deut 8:3, 5). The essence of what he taught was the Torah (Job 22:22; Ps 94:12; 119:26ff.). The future hope was that the people would be taught by God...“All your sons shall be taught by the Lord” (Isa 54:13). (See also Jer 31:31ff. where the hope of the new covenant was that all would know the Lord and be taught by Him.) The Torah was not taught directly by God to man. He communicated the Torah through men, through Moses, through priests, through prophets, through the Servant. The Lord remained the prototype of the teacher, but the law was communicated to Israel through Moses (Deut 4:1, 5). Through Moses, Israel is commanded to educate the coming generations (Deut 4:9ff.) “Only take heed, and keep your soul diligently, lest you forget the things which your eyes have seen, and lest they depart from your heart all the days of your life; make them known to your children and your children’s children—how on the day that you stood before the Lord your God at Horeb, the Lord said to me, ‘Gather the people to me that I may let them hear my words, so that they may learn to fear me all the days that they live upon the earth, and that they may teach their children so’.” While God remained the source of knowledge and revelation, and the prototype of teacher in Israel, He commanded others to carry out the teaching and communicated knowledge through them. Not only did He command but He also inspired men to teach (Exod 35:31-35). When false prophets declared their message, they were upbraided because God had not revealed knowledge to them. He had not commanded them; He had not inspired them; therefore no heed was to be paid to their teaching (see Jer 14:14; Hab 2:18 ff.).

2. The family. The OT depicts a clear, high regard for children in Israel. Children were regarded as the most precious gift of the Lord (Job 5:25; Pss 127:3; 128:3, 4). Happiness could not be understood without children (see Zech 8:5). The Lord Himself was regarded as the prototype of the loving father (Ps 103:13), and Israel was his son (Hos 11:1). It is natural that care was taken in bringing up children. Training began at an early age (Isa 28:9). Prior to the Exile, with few exceptions, children were trained in the home by the parents. Exhortations to teach were intended for families. Later they were anachronistically interpreted as an exhortation concerning formal education (Gen 18:19; Deut 11:19; Prov 22:6). The primary importance of the family was never forgotten in Israel’s educational system. The family never gave up its responsibility. The parents’ responsibility to teach the children provided the preliminary requirements such as literacy. But the system, whether domestic, elementary or rabbinic, was always devoted to the elaboration of duty toward God, i.e. the elaboration of the law. The aim was the perfect application of the law. It was Abraham’s duty to instruct his whole household (Gen 18:19). The duty of every father was to instruct his children (Exod 10:2; 12:26, 27). The essence of what was taught was summed up in the Shema (Deut 6:4-9) which was to be taught to the children. The importance of this transmission is indicated in Psalm 78:3-6; and Proverbs 4:3, 4. It would seem that this kind of education began as soon as the child could speak, and one may perhaps describe the nature of the instruction as the culture of memory. The place of the development of memory in the educational system of Is rael is of primary importance. The purpose of the instruction was that the children may grow up to know and remember, and consequently obey, the law.

In the family situation, children were trained in their everyday duties (1 Sam 16:11; 2 Kings 4:18), and artistic training was given in some cases, at least (Judg 21:21; 1 Sam 16:15-18; Ps 137; Lam 5:14). Girls learned household crafts presumably from their mothers (Exod 35:25, 26; 2 Sam 13:8). During the second commonwealth, the schools were intended only for boys. Girls learned their household skills at home (Prov 31:13-31). If there were no sons girls did the work of the sons (Gen 29:6; Exod 2:16). Some women received a relatively good education and consequently became leaders (Judges 4:4ff.; 2 Kings 22:14-20). In Proverbs mothers appear to be of equal importance as fathers as teachers (Prov 1:8; 6:20). Women were among the ֭חֲכָמִים, “the wise,” the “teachers” of the Wisdom Lit. Proverbs 31:1 indicates that Lemuel, the king of Massa, was taught by his mother. Among the higher classes, evidently nurses (guardians or teachers) were used in loco parentis (Ruth 4:16; 2 Sam 4:4; 2 Kings 10:5; Isa 49:23). The instance of Samuel’s education by Eli should be noted, but this may be an exception for the period. The rule in ancient Israel was education by the family, by the father, to some extent by the mother, though we have noted exceptions to this rule.

3. The place of Moses. In Judaism, there was no more prominent teaching figure than Moses. In fact, Moses was the ideal of each class of Israelite leader or teacher. His importance arises from his relationship to the law. The Jews recognized that the law was given through Moses, but not only this, the law became known as the law of Moses (see Num 12:6, 7; Neh 9:14; Dan 9:11). After Moses, Israel’s hope became bound up with the expectation of a new Moses, a prophet like Moses whom the Lord God would raise up, and to whom the people of Israel would hearken (Deut 18:15, 18). The prophecy concerning the new covenant (Jer 31:31ff.) prob. arises out of the expectation of the new Moses who would usher in a new covenant which would be effective, because “unto him,” the new Moses, “the people would hearken.” In the OT, Moses is characteristically described by God as “my servant” (see Num 12:7; et al.). With this in mind, it is possible that the servant of Isaiah 42:1ff., 49:1ff., 50:4ff; 52:12ff. is the fulfillment of the hope of a prophet like Moses. The servant is given as a covenant to the people (Isa 42:6). He publishes the law (42:4), and brings out the prisoners from the dungeon and captivity (42:7). His role appears to be modeled after the role of Moses. Moses offered to give his life for the people of Israel when they sinned. The Servant, in fact, gives His life for the people (see Isa 53:5).

4. The priests. Initially the priesthood was a delegation of Moses’ office (Exod 4:10-17). Aaron was to act as Moses’ mouth. He was Moses’ brother and was a Levite (4:14). The function indicated was to communicate the knowledge of God revealed to Moses to the people. The primary task of the priesthood was to teach the law of Moses (Lev 10:8-11; Deut 31:9-13; 33:10; Mal 2:6, 7). In the course of teaching the Torah, they were to preserve it (Deut 17:8, 9; 31:9). As the custodians of the law, the priests kept a copy in the Temple (31:9). The custodians of the law at times failed in their duties. Not only did they fail to teach the law, they failed to keep it themselves (Ezek 22:26). The writings of the prophets are studded with critiques of the function of the priesthood in Israel. Again and again, one finds the criticism that the priests who should have taught the law had failed to do so (2 Chron 15:1-6; Ezek 7:26; Hos 4:6; Zeph 3:4; Mal 2:6-8). The priesthood, which was in essence a teaching office, failed to fulfill this function, and Israel was without a teaching priest (2 Chron 15:3). It is not surprising that when the priesthood forgot to teach the law, that the law should become forgotten and lost. Evidently this was the situation prior to the rediscovery of the book of the law in the time of King Josiah (2 Kings 22:8). The priests became involved in politics and the worship of the Temple. Their work as expounders and teachers of the law became overlooked. Consequently, the need arose for a special class of men to carry out these tasks.

It is possible that from the beginning, the teaching functions of the priesthood were restricted to trained members of this class, though Leviticus 10:11 indicates that the sons of Aaron were to teach Israel, and the prophets seem to presuppose that all priests shared in the teaching office (Mal 2:6, 7). At least some Levites were also instructed to teach (Deut 33:10; 2 Chron 35:3). Priests were not to be paid for their instruction (Mic 3:11). Instruction was carried out by the priest visiting a town (2 Chron 17:8, 9), gathering the people together and expounding the Torah (Deut 31:10-13; 2 Chron 17:8, 9). This practice continued after the return from the Exile (Ezra 8:15-20; Neh 8:7-9). The teaching was carried on by those skilled in the art of exegesis. By the return from exile, there was a body of teaching which was the property of the priesthood, and the exposition of this was one of the most important functions of the priests and Levites. Ezra was a priest (Ezra 7:1-5; Neh 8:2). But he evidently was a member of a section of the priesthood with special knowledge and ability to teach the Torah (Ezra 7:6, 10). When Ezra came from Babylon he brought with him a copy of the Torah and expounded this to the assembly of returned exiles. This assembly included teaching Levites (called מְבִינִ֑ים Neh 8:3, 9). The purpose of this instruction was prob. to refresh the memories of the teaching Levites. The instruction was carried out from a wooden pulpit (Neh 8:4). The Torah was read while the reader was surrounded by his assistants, prob. Levites who assisted in the interpretation (Neh 8:7-9). During the second commonwealth, the Torah was expounded on Mondays and Thursdays, these being the market days when there would be a congregation. Later on, a three year consecutive cycle of readings was worked out for the Torah. Thus a major program of adult education was initiated.

It is possible that some priests combined scribal and teaching duties. If this is so, they were the ancestors of the scribes of the second commonwealth who were the custodians of the Torah and its interpreters. Our knowledge of Ezra, the priest, who was also a scribe, fits in with this theory (Ezra 7:6-11; Neh 8:4, 9, 13). From Ezra’s time, the scribes were a special class of Biblical scholars, exegetes, official teachers and spiritual leaders in Israel. The scribes were the predecessors of the doctors of the law from Maccabean times to about a.d. 200. The scribes and the doctors of the law adapted Biblical exegesis to meet the requirements of the time, and from their teaching the Mishnah developed. The aim of these teachers was to pass on their heritage to an ever increasing number of disciples. As Moses was the originator of the priesthood, so also the scribes looked back to Moses as “the great scribe of Israel.” With the coming of Ezra, the scribe, the priest began the development of the scribal schools, an institution which had more effect on Israelite education than any other.

5. The king. The teaching function of the kings is often overlooked in thinking of education in Israel. David’s songs had a considerable instructional effect in Israel. The sons of David, the kings of Israel, were responsible for keeping the law as a condition for sitting on the throne of David (Ps 132:12). Jehoshaphat caused his princes to be sent throughout the land of Judah teaching the people in all the cities (2 Chron 17:7-9). The wisdom of Solomon became a proverb throughout the ancient world so that even the Queen of Sheba came to test his wisdom (1 Kings 10:1-13). The kings were not often competent for the teaching task. More often than not, they disregarded the law in their own lives and led the nation to sin against God.

6. The prophets. The role of the prophets also has its origin in the office of Moses (Deut 18:15, 18; 34:10; Hos 12:13). Moses is thought of as the prophet par excellence, with whom the Lord spoke face to face. The activity of the prophets was largely bound up with teaching the law, and bringing out its meaning in the current situation (see Isa 1:10; 8:16, 20 and esp. Zech 7:12). The activity of Elijah the prophet is depicted as a return to Moses. In his return to Horeb, the mount of God, Elijah comes to know the true meaning of his mission (1 Kings 19:8ff.).

The prophets were the critics of evil government, standing fearlessly before kings to declare to them the errors of their ways, as Elijah did before King Ahab (ch. 17, etc.). The prophets were also the friends of wise government seeking to strengthen the kings who sought to lead the people in the way of the Lord as Isaiah did with King Hezekiah (2 Kings 19). The prophets criticized injustice in the social behavior of the people (see Amos). They condemned the infidelity of Israel in forgetting Jehovah (see Hosea). They denied adamantly the false hope that because of Jerusalem and the Temple, Israel never would be enslaved by the enemy. The message of the prophets was one of judgment and doom on a nation that had strayed from the law of God. The message of judgment and doom was itself bound up with the message of the law (Deut 30). The message of the prophets was not one of ultimate doom because God in His covenant love would not permanently cast off His covenant people (see Hosea). Ultimately, He would find a way of redeeming them. In the new act of redemption, Israel would return to Him as their Lord. Consequently, an important aspect of the message of the prophets was one of returning unto the Lord, a message of repentance (Joel 2:12-14). The message of repentance was, itself, a message of hope (Isa 40, etc.). The message of the prophet involved an inspired interpretation of the law of Moses and of the historical situation in which they lived. During the first commonwealth, it was the prophets that kept the people true to their historical heritage. The prophets were to the first commonwealth what the scribes and the doctors of the law were to the second. Of course, there is a great difference in that the prophets were prepared to offer their critical judgment of the situation in terms of the word of the Lord to the people of the day, whereas the scribes and the doctors of the law of fered their words as interpretations and varying interpretations of the law of Moses.

7. The sages. Moses is also the prototype of the wise man in the OT (Deut 4:5ff.). For the NT assessment of Moses as a wise man see Acts 7:22: “And Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds.” The class of wise men in Israel is related in its origin to the wise men of other nations.

When the prophets ceased to proclaim the word of the Lord in their inspired and penetrating manner the need arose for those who could give guidance in the everyday matters of life. It was in this area that the sages played their part in educating Israel. They applied the Torah to the practical, everyday matters of life. This practical wisdom appears in the Wisdom Lit. of Israel. Practical or worldly wisdom does not always harmonize with the economy of God. Consequently, there are occasions in the OT when the prophets came into conflict with the professional wise men (Isa 29:13, 14; Jer 8:8ff.). On these occasions, what was put forward as practical wisdom was evidently “worldly wisdom.”

Just as the prophets faced the problem of preaching a message to those who would not heed them (cf. the experience of Jeremiah), so also the wise men found that people were more ready to pursue a course of folly than to heed a course of wisdom (Prov 5:13). Although their wisdom was not always heeded, the sages were effective in building up a philosophy of education and a pedagogical system. Through them, education previously carried out with little planning or consistency was worked into a systematic whole.

G. The place and use of the law. The Jews had one textbook, i.e. the Scriptures. The Scriptures were made up of the OT canonical books. The body of writings known as the Pseudep. had no official recognition in the schools though it had a wide circulation in private homes. One should recognize that the development of these written records was gradual and over a long period.

1. Oral law. Scholars have debated the date of the origin of the written law. It has been suggested that in the initial stages of Israelite history, all law was in an oral form, only to be written down at a later date. Today, it would seem more likely that written and oral law developed side by side, later being crystallized into a full written tradition. The completion of the writing down of the law of the OT may not have taken place until after the Exile, and certainly the later books of the Apoc. must be dated in the Maccabean period or later. Further, the oral law developed from the time of the Maccabean period until about a.d. 220 when the Mishnah was completed in a written form.