JUDGE. (The Heb. noun is usually שָׁפַט, H9149; LXX and NT chiefly κριτής, G3216. But also used are Heb. roots דין, פלל, יכח; Gr. δικαστής, G1471). One who governs, dispenses justice, judgment and protection, and as such is the representative of God.

1. OT. Significantly the first mention of a judge in the first book of the OT applies the title to Yahweh. In his intercession for Sodom, Abraham prays: “Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?” (Gen 18:25). The thought underlying Genesis and all that follows is that God is the righteous judge of both peoples and individuals (Gen 3:14ff.; 6:3ff.; 11:5ff.; 15:14; 16:5; 20:3; 31:53).

Under the patriarchs judicial authority is exercised by the head of the household (Gen 21; 22; 27). Disputes between families are settled by force or mutual agreement (Gen 21; 31). Although judges were not unknown outside the chosen people (Gen 19:9; Exod 2:14), they were first instituted in Israel at the suggestion of Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro, to assist Moses in acting on behalf of God in settling disputes (Exod 18:13-27; Deut 1:9-18). The Deuteronomic code provided for the appointment of “judges and officers” in every town (16:18ff.). More important cases were to be tried by a judge with priests as assessors (17:8-13).

During the conquest of Canaan judges took part in the solemn assemblies of the nation (Josh 8:33ff.; 24:1). After the death of Joshua, Israel’s fortunes depended upon judges whom Yahweh “raised up” to save “them out of the power of those who plundered them” (Judg 2:16). Their task was not merely to try cases, but to keep the nation from idolatry and lead it in battle (vv. 17ff.). They were sometimes called “saviours” or “deliverers” (3:9, 15). The Book of Judges records their exploits from Othniel (3:9) to Samson (chs. 13-16). Among them was the prophetess, Deborah (4:4f.). The last of the line was the priest and prophet, Samuel (1 Sam 1-19; cf. Acts 13:20; 3:24), who “judged Israel all the days of his life,” visiting key centers annually (1 Sam 7:15f.). In his old age the people wanted a king to “judge” (sāphat) them (1 Sam 8:5; cf. Deut 17:14-20).

Under the monarchy the king was the supreme—and at times apparently the sole—judge (2 Sam 15:2f.). Jehoshaphat (whose name means “Yahweh has judged”) appointed judges in all the fortified cities of Judah (2 Chron 19:5ff.). With the exile the monarchy lapsed, but on the return Ezra was authorized to appoint magistrates and judges to judge according to the laws of God and of the king of Persia (Ezra 7:25f.).

Judges are even occasionally called gods (אֱֽלֹהִ֗ים) in view of their divinely authorized function (Ps 82:1, 6; cf. John 10:34f.; and possibly Exod 21:6; 22:7f.).

2. NT. It was Rom. policy to preserve as far as possible the culture and self-government of subject peoples. In Pal. justice was administered by Sanhedrins (q.v.) which could inflict flogging and expulsion (Luke 6:22; John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2; Acts 5:40; 2 Cor 11:24), but not the death penalty (Matt 27:1ff.). At the same time individual judges were familiar enough figures to provide vivid illustrations in the teaching of Jesus (Matt 5:25; Luke 12:14, 58; 18:2, 6).

As in the OT, judges have God’s authority, even though they may be pagan (Rom 13:1-7; 1 Tim 2:2; 1 Pet 2:13f.; cf. Matt 22:15-22). As such they must be respected. Individuals are never to set themselves up as judges (Matt 7:1ff.; Luke 6:37f.; Rom 2:1; 12:19-21; 14:10). Judgment (q.v.) will be passed on all men by God, the supreme Judge (Rom 3:6; Heb 10:30; 12:23; James 4:12; 5:9; cf. Matt 5:21-26; Deut 32:35f.). It is an indirect testimony to His divinity that the judge will be one who as a man was Himself judged by men, Jesus Christ (Matt 25:31-46; John 8:16; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tim 4:1; 1 Pet 4:5; cf. 1 Cor 15:24-28). All men will appear before His judgment seat (q.v.). As in the OT theocracy, so in the kingdom the saints will receive delegated authority to judge (Luke 22:30; 1 Cor 6:2f.; Rev 20:4; cf. Dan 7:9, 22, 27).

Bibliography Arndt, 197, 454; BDB, 43, 192f., 406f., 813, 1047ff.; O. Cullmann, The State in the New Testament (1957); L. Morris, The Biblical Doctrine of Judgment (1960); R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel (1961), 143-163; W. Förster, Palestinian Judaism in New Testament Times (1964), passim.